Gold in Oman: The Complete Guide to History, Mining, Prices and Buying Tips

Oman does not usually top the list when people think about gold producing nations, yet this quiet corner of the Arabian Peninsula has a genuinely fascinating relationship with the yellow metal. From the ancient caravans that once carried frankincense worth its weight in gold, to a modern mining sector chasing new copper and gold deposits in the Hajar Mountains, to the glittering alleyways of Muttrah Souq where locals and tourists alike haggle over 22 karat bangles, gold runs through almost every layer of Omani life.

This guide brings together everything worth knowing about gold in Oman. We will look at the historical roots of gold trading in the Sultanate, the state of gold mining today, where to shop for gold jewelry and bullion, how gold prices behave in Omani rials, the rules around hallmarking and purity, the tax and customs side of things, and why gold still matters so much culturally to Omani families. Whether you are a traveler planning to bring home a piece of Omani craftsmanship, an investor curious about physical gold, or simply someone who wants to understand the mining sector better, this article is written for you.

A Land Long Connected to Gold and Precious Trade

Long before oil became the backbone of the Omani economy, this land was already a hub of precious commodities. Oman sits along what historians call the incense trade route, a network of caravan paths and sea lanes that once linked southern Arabia with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, India and the Mediterranean world. Frankincense harvested from the Boswellia trees of Dhofar was so valuable in antiquity that merchants weighed it against gold to set its price. In the Roman and Hellenistic world, this fragrant resin was at times considered more precious than gold itself.

Alongside frankincense, gold traveled through the same web of ports and caravan stops. Ancient texts describe ships bringing gold, silver, ivory and gemstones through ports along the Arabian coast, with Omani harbors such as Sumhuram acting as gathering points before goods moved onward toward Yemen, Petra and beyond. Oman was also known in antiquity as the land of copper, referred to in ancient Sumerian sources as Majan, and archaeological evidence at Wadi Jizzi shows copper smelting activity stretching back more than five thousand years. Copper and gold mineralization in Oman often occur together within the same geological formations, a pattern that still shapes the mining industry today.

Gold also became deeply woven into Omani craftsmanship. Traditional silversmithing flourished across the country for centuries, with distinct regional styles developing in the north and south. In Dhofar, delicate filigree work reflects centuries of contact with the Swahili coast of East Africa, and some historians believe the intricate bell earrings and fine chains of Dhofari jewelry may echo an era when gold, not silver, was the more abundant metal in that region. In the northern interior and coastal areas, heavier and thicker jewelry styles developed, drawing on metallurgical skills passed down since the third millennium BCE, when copper mining first began in the Hajar Mountains.

For Bedouin communities across Oman, gold and silver jewelry historically served a very practical purpose beyond decoration. It functioned as a portable form of savings. Families who moved seasonally with their herds could not rely on a fixed bank or vault, so wealth was worn on the body in the form of necklaces, anklets, rings and headpieces. This tradition helps explain why gold jewelry still carries such deep sentimental and financial weight in Omani households today, particularly around weddings, where families continue to invest heavily in gold sets for brides.

Gold Mining in Oman Today

For most of the twentieth century, Oman was known internationally for oil and gas, while its mineral wealth stayed somewhat overshadowed by neighboring Saudi Arabia. That picture has been changing steadily since the government began actively diversifying the economy away from hydrocarbons. Mining now sits at the center of Oman Vision 2040, the long term national strategy that aims to raise the mining sector’s contribution to GDP from roughly 1.4 percent in 2020 to as much as 10 percent by 2040.

Oman’s 700 kilometer mountain range, the Hajar Mountains, hosts a genuinely impressive geological inheritance, including chromite, copper, gold, limestone, gypsum and a range of industrial minerals. The Ministry of Energy and Minerals and Minerals Development Oman, a government backed mining and mineral processing company known as MDO, are the two main bodies steering exploration and investment in this sector. The Law of Mineral Wealth, issued in 2019, modernized the legal framework for mining licenses, exploration rights and royalties, with concession periods that can run for twenty to thirty years covering prospecting, exploration and production.

Gold in Oman rarely appears as a standalone deposit. It is almost always found together with copper, reflecting the volcanic hosted massive sulphide geology of the Samail Ophiolite belt that runs through much of the country. The most notable example is the Al Washihi Majaza project in the Al Mudhaibi area of Al Sharqiyah North Governorate, operated by Al Hadeetha Resources, a joint venture in which the Australian firm Alara Resources holds a majority stake. Since production began there in early 2024, the operation has shipped gold and copper concentrate through the port and free zone at Sohar, with cumulative gold output surpassing 100 kilograms and copper exports reaching more than six thousand metric tons by late 2025. While modest by global standards, this milestone matters because it shows Oman can move from exploration to actual export revenue in a relatively short window.

Other historic gold sites include the Rakah deposit near Yanqul, where a processing plant once handled around 100000 tons of ore annually, and exploration efforts near Sohar and the South Batinah region carried out by Japanese and French companies during the 1990s, which reportedly mined more than 12 million tons of material across the northern and eastern regions of the country. National production figures from the early 2000s recorded several hundred kilograms of gold output per year alongside silver, chromite and marble, illustrating that gold mining, while never large scale, has a genuine track record in the Sultanate.

Looking ahead, MDO has mapped more than 21000 square kilometers of concession areas specifically to identify copper, gold and chromite reserves, and international partners continue to commit capital toward exploration and processing infrastructure. There is also an unusual twist involving antimony. Strategic and Precious Metals Processing, majority owned by the Oman Investment Authority, operates a large antimony smelter and refinery in the Sohar Port and Free Zone, one of the biggest facilities of its kind outside China. Because gold is sometimes present within antimony ore, this refinery has the technical capability to recover and capture gold as a byproduct, adding another dimension to Oman’s precious metals story.

For investors, Oman’s mining sector offers tax exemptions of up to ten years for qualifying manufacturing projects, customs exemptions tied to trade agreements with numerous countries, and a government that is clearly motivated to attract foreign expertise. Challenges remain, including geological complexity, the need for advanced extraction technology, and the logistical demands of operating in remote mountain terrain, but the direction of travel is unmistakable. Oman wants to be recognized as a serious regional player in copper and gold, not just oil.

Key Companies and Projects Shaping Oman’s Gold Mining Sector

Behind the headline numbers sits a small but genuinely active cast of companies pushing Oman’s gold and copper ambitions forward. Alara Resources, an Australian listed mining firm, has become one of the most visible names in this space through its majority stake in Al Hadeetha Resources, the joint venture behind the Al Washihi Majaza copper gold project. Alara’s leadership has publicly framed 2025 and 2026 as pivotal years, pointing to process upgrades, ongoing drilling programs and greenfield exploration across several licence areas as the foundation for continued growth. Beyond the flagship mine, Alara and its partners hold additional exploration licences across Oman, including the Block 7 licence under a joint venture arrangement, the Mullaq and Al Ajal licences tied to the Al Hadeetha partnership, the Block 8 licence developed with a separate copper and power metals venture, and a more recently awarded licence known as Block 22B.

Minerals Development Oman, the state backed company usually referred to simply as MDO, plays a broader coordinating role across the entire minerals landscape rather than focusing on gold alone. Its concession areas span more than twenty thousand square kilometres and cover a wide range of commodities beyond gold and copper, including chromite, nickel, platinum, limestone, gypsum, phosphorite, silica and even lithium. MDO’s portfolio also includes downstream industrial projects such as a titanium dioxide plant in Sohar and salt extraction from seawater near Duqm, illustrating how gold sits within a much larger diversification push rather than existing as an isolated priority.

Government oversight runs through the Ministry of Energy and Minerals, which grants licences, enforces the Law of Mineral Wealth and works to attract credible international partners rather than opportunistic operators. This regulatory backbone matters a great deal for anyone considering serious investment in Oman’s gold or copper sector, since it provides a level of legal clarity and long term concession security that smaller, less regulated mining jurisdictions often lack.

Sustainability in Oman’s Mining and Gold Sector

As Oman expands its mining ambitions, sustainability has become a recurring theme rather than an afterthought. Several active projects across the country now incorporate solar powered mining equipment and water recycling systems, both aimed at reducing the environmental footprint of extraction in a climate where water scarcity is a genuine long term concern. Government backed operators have also begun deploying autonomous haulage systems and three dimensional geological modelling to make extraction more precise and less wasteful, reducing the amount of rock that needs to be moved and processed to recover a given quantity of gold or copper.

This focus on responsible mining fits within Oman’s broader net zero ambitions and reflects growing awareness that mineral wealth, including gold, needs to be developed in a way that protects the country’s unique desert and mountain ecosystems rather than depleting them. For investors and partners evaluating Oman as a destination, this environmental commitment, combined with a relatively stable regulatory environment, forms part of the country’s pitch as a serious, forward looking mining jurisdiction rather than an extraction free for all.

Muttrah Gold Souk: The Beating Heart of Oman’s Gold Trade

If gold mining represents Oman’s future ambitions, the Muttrah Souq represents its living tradition. Located along the historic Corniche in the port district of Muttrah, just outside central Muscat, this market has been trading for more than two centuries. Locally it is sometimes called Souq Al Dhalam, meaning the market of shades, a nod to its covered alleyways and the soft, shadowy light that filters through wooden roofing onto stalls selling everything from frankincense and spices to textiles, antiques and, most famously, gold.

Entering from Al Bahri Road along the Corniche, visitors pass beneath a carved archway scented with incense before stepping into a maze of narrow lanes. The gold section sits within its own dedicated stretch of the souq, where dozens of shops display necklaces, bangles, earrings and full bridal sets in a mix of traditional Arabian designs and more contemporary European inspired styles. Bargaining is not just tolerated here, it is expected and even enjoyed as part of the shopping ritual. Shoppers are generally encouraged to negotiate on making charges, the labour component added on top of the raw metal value, rather than on the underlying gold price itself, which is publicly quoted and displayed in most shops.

A short distance inland, the Ruwi district has quietly become Muscat’s most concentrated gold trading zone. What began decades ago as a handful of family run jewelers along Ruwi High Street has expanded into a strip with more than fifty gold retailers, ranging from long standing independent shops to bullion dealers and the local branches of major South Asian jewelry chains. Lower commercial rents compared to central Muscat, combined with a convenient location, have made Ruwi increasingly attractive both to shoppers looking for competitive pricing and to entrepreneurs entering the trade.

For buyers who prefer a more polished, air conditioned experience with fixed pricing and certified diamond work, Oman Avenues Mall and City Centre Muscat host branded jewelry boutiques including well known international names. Outside the capital, Salalah in Dhofar has its own thriving gold market, which sees a seasonal surge every year during the Khareef festival between July and September, when visitors from across the Gulf Cooperation Council flock to the misty southern coast and, along with it, to the gold shops. Sohar and Nizwa in the interior also maintain active traditional markets, with Nizwa particularly celebrated for its Omani silver craftsmanship, though gold jewelry is widely available there as well.

Across all these locations, gold in Oman is subject to oversight from the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Investment Promotion, which enforces mandatory hallmarking standards for jewelry sold through licensed retail channels. This gives buyers, whether they are locals purchasing wedding sets or tourists picking up a souvenir bangle, a reasonable degree of protection when it comes to verifying purity.

Understanding Gold Purity and Hallmarking in Oman

One of the first things any buyer should understand before shopping for gold in Oman is how purity is measured and certified. Gold purity is expressed in karats, with 24 karat representing essentially pure gold and lower karats containing a mix of other metals such as copper, silver or zinc to increase durability. In Oman, the most commonly available options are 24 karat, 22 karat, 21 karat and 18 karat gold. The 22 karat and 21 karat ranges are especially popular for traditional Arabian and South Asian jewelry designs because the slightly reduced purity makes the metal more workable for intricate detailing while still retaining a rich, warm colour.

A hallmark is an official stamp applied to gold jewelry to certify its metal purity and origin. In Oman, hallmarking is mandatory for gold sold through licensed retail outlets, and the stamp typically shows a number indicating fineness in parts per thousand, for example 916 for 22 karat gold. Buyers are encouraged to examine this stamp under good lighting or ask a shopkeeper for a magnifying glass, and for larger purchases many reputable dealers in Muscat now offer on site testing using X ray fluorescence analyzers. This non destructive method delivers a precise purity reading within seconds and has become a popular way for serious buyers to gain confidence before completing a transaction, particularly in the busier stretches of Muttrah Souq and Ruwi.

It is worth noting that prices for hallmarked jewelry are typically somewhat higher than for unmarked pieces, simply because the certification provides proof of purity that unmarked gold cannot offer. For anyone planning a significant purchase, whether a wedding set or an investment bar, insisting on hallmarked gold and, where possible, requesting written certification, is one of the simplest ways to protect yourself.

Gold Prices in Oman: What Shapes the Rate You Pay

Gold prices in Oman are driven by two main forces working together. The first is the international spot price of gold, which is set on global commodity markets and reflects factors such as interest rates, inflation expectations, central bank buying and general investor sentiment toward safe haven assets. The second is the exchange rate between the United States dollar and the Omani rial, since gold is priced internationally in dollars before being converted into local currency for retail sale.

As of mid 2026, gold in Oman has been trading at historically elevated levels, broadly consistent with the strong global rally in gold prices seen over the past year. Retail rates in Muscat have generally hovered in the range of about 50 to 52 Omani rials per gram for 24 karat gold, roughly 46 to 48 rials per gram for 22 karat gold, and somewhat lower again for 21 karat and 18 karat jewelry. These figures move daily and sometimes several times within a single day, so anyone planning a purchase should always check the live rate posted in store or through a reliable financial source rather than relying on a fixed number from an article or a friend’s recollection.

On top of the base metal price, retailers typically add making charges, which cover the labour and craftsmanship involved in producing a finished piece. These charges vary considerably between traditional souq jewelers, who often have lower overheads and more room for negotiation, and branded mall showrooms, where pricing tends to be fixed and standardized across an entire retail network. Because of this, the same weight of gold can end up costing noticeably different amounts depending on where you shop and how comfortable you are negotiating.

For those interested in gold purely as an investment rather than as jewelry, Oman offers two broad paths. Bank Muscat, the country’s largest bank, sells branded gold bars from recognized international refiners, complete with assay certificates and serial numbers, making them a convenient and highly trusted option, particularly for smaller purchases where speed and documentation matter most. Muttrah Souq and other traditional gold markets also sell investment grade bars, and for larger amounts the spread between buying and selling prices at these markets can often be tighter than at a bank branch, which may translate into meaningful savings on substantial purchases. As a general rule of thumb, smaller purchases tend to favour the convenience and certainty of a bank, while larger transactions often reward those willing to negotiate directly with an established souq dealer.

Tax, VAT and Customs Rules Around Gold in Oman

Understanding the regulatory side of buying and moving gold in Oman helps avoid unpleasant surprises. Oman introduced a standard value added tax of five percent in April 2021, one of the lowest VAT rates in the world, applied across most goods and services. Investment grade gold with a purity of 99.5 percent or higher is generally treated as VAT exempt, though buyers should always confirm this directly with the retailer at the point of sale, since practices can vary and some shops may apply VAT incorrectly.

When it comes to travel, anyone entering or leaving Oman carrying cash, bearer securities or precious metals convertible into cash exceeding six thousand Omani rials, or the equivalent in another currency, is legally required to declare this to customs authorities. This rule exists primarily to support anti money laundering and counter terrorism financing regulations rather than to specifically target gold buyers, but it absolutely applies to gold bars, coins and high value jewelry being carried across the border. Failing to declare amounts above this threshold can be treated as a serious offence, so travelers bringing home a meaningful gold purchase should keep receipts and be transparent with customs officers.

For businesses or individuals looking to formally import or export precious metals, Oman’s Directorate General of Customs requires goods to be stamped by the Precious Metals Monitoring and Standards Administration under the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Investment Promotion, along with payment of the relevant customs fees. This process is separate from the simple traveler declaration described above and is aimed at commercial scale movement of gold and other precious metals.

Gold in Oman Compared with Dubai and the Wider Gulf

Many travelers naturally compare gold shopping in Oman with the famous Gold Souk in Dubai, and the comparison is a fair one, since both markets sit within the same Gulf region and both track the same international spot price. The core metal cost of gold in Oman and gold in Dubai tends to move in close alignment, since both currencies are pegged to the United States dollar and both markets source bullion through similar international supply chains.

Where the two destinations genuinely differ is in atmosphere, scale and making charges. Dubai’s Gold Souk is larger, more overtly tourist oriented and dazzling in its sheer density of shopfronts, while Muttrah Souq in Muscat offers a more intimate, historically layered experience alongside spices, textiles and traditional silver work rather than gold alone. Many buyers who have shopped in both cities report that making charges in Muscat’s traditional souqs, particularly for heavier and more traditionally styled pieces, can be somewhat lower than equivalent designs in Dubai, largely because competition among family run Omani jewelers keeps labour pricing under pressure. For branded international chains operating across both countries, pricing tends to be far more standardized, since these companies apply broadly similar making charges across their entire Gulf network regardless of which city you are standing in.

For shoppers deciding between the two, the practical takeaway is simple. If your priority is the lowest possible price on a large, simple gold purchase, it is worth comparing rates in both markets before committing. If your priority is a genuinely memorable, culturally rich shopping experience with a strong sense of place, Muttrah Souq holds its own extremely well against its more famous neighbour.

Cultural Significance of Gold in Omani Society

To understand gold in Oman fully, it helps to look beyond markets and mining statistics and consider what the metal actually means to Omani families. Gold jewelry sits at the very centre of Omani wedding traditions. It is common for a groom’s family to present the bride with an elaborate gold set as part of the marriage arrangement, and dowry related gold gifts can represent a substantial financial commitment, sometimes running into thousands of Omani rials depending on the family’s means and regional customs.

This is not simply about adornment. Gold jewelry in Oman traditionally functions as a store of family wealth, something that can be sold, melted down or passed on to the next generation if circumstances demand it. Each piece can also carry social meaning, signalling a woman’s marital status, her family’s standing, or her regional identity, since jewelry styles differ noticeably between the interior, the coastal Batinah region and the southern Dhofar province. In this sense, gold in Oman occupies a space somewhere between fashion, family finance and cultural memory, a role that has persisted even as the country has modernized rapidly over the past few decades.

The craftsmanship behind traditional Omani gold and silver jewelry also deserves recognition. Skilled artisans, historically working with simple hand tools such as hammers, small anvils and lathes, produce intricate filigree work, granulation and engraving that reflect centuries of accumulated technique. While fewer young Omanis are entering this craft today compared with previous generations, largely due to the appeal of salaried careers, efforts continue to document and preserve these traditional skills, recognizing their importance as part of the country’s intangible cultural heritage.

Practical Tips for Buying Gold in Oman

Anyone planning to buy gold jewelry or bullion in Oman, whether as a tourist, a resident or an investor, can benefit from a few practical habits.

First, always check the daily gold rate before shopping. Most established retailers display the current rate prominently, and comparing it against a reliable financial source helps you understand roughly what you should be paying before making charges are added.

Second, treat bargaining as a normal and expected part of the process, particularly in traditional markets like Muttrah Souq and Ruwi. Vendors generally expect negotiation on making charges rather than the raw gold value, and a polite, friendly approach usually works better than an aggressive one. If a price feels too high, it is perfectly acceptable to walk away, as vendors will often follow up with a better offer.

Third, insist on hallmarked gold and ask to see the purity stamp clearly. For significant purchases, request an XRF test if the shop offers one, and ask for written certification of purity alongside your receipt.

Fourth, bring cash where possible, since many souq traders offer better rates for cash transactions and cash also strengthens your negotiating position, though most shops do accept card payments as well.

Fifth, think carefully about purpose before choosing where to shop. If you want traditional Arabian craftsmanship and a memorable cultural experience, Muttrah Souq is unmatched. If you are focused purely on getting the most competitive price for a larger purchase, Ruwi or a negotiated souq deal may work out better. If you want certified branded jewelry with fixed, transparent pricing and no negotiation required, the shopping malls around Qurm and central Muscat are the better choice.

Finally, keep documentation for anything you buy, particularly for larger purchases, both to satisfy customs declaration requirements if you are travelling with the gold and to support any future resale or valuation.

The Future Outlook for Gold in Oman

Looking forward, gold in Oman sits at an interesting crossroads between heritage and ambition. On one side, the traditional gold souks of Muttrah, Ruwi, Salalah, Sohar and Nizwa continue to thrive as living cultural institutions, sustained by strong domestic demand tied to weddings and family tradition, along with steady interest from tourists drawn to Oman’s markets and craftsmanship. On the other side, the government’s Vision 2040 strategy is actively working to transform mining, including gold and copper extraction, into a genuine pillar of the national economy, backed by new exploration licenses, foreign investment, modernized legal frameworks and infrastructure improvements around ports such as Sohar and Duqm.

Analysts and industry observers expect Oman’s mining sector overall to grow at a healthy annual pace over the coming decade, driven by rising global demand for copper tied to clean energy technologies and electrification, with gold often emerging as a valuable byproduct of these same projects rather than the primary target. Continued exploration across newly mapped concession areas, along with growing interest from international mining companies, suggests that Oman’s gold story is still being written, even after thousands of years of history along the ancient trade routes that first brought the metal to this part of Arabia.

For now, whether you encounter gold in Oman as a glittering bangle in a Muttrah shopfront, a line item in a mining company’s exploration report, or a treasured piece passed down within an Omani family, it remains one of the most enduring threads connecting this country’s ancient past to its rapidly evolving future.

Frequently Asked Questions About Gold in Oman

Is gold cheaper in Oman than in other Gulf countries?

Gold prices in Oman generally track the international spot price closely, similar to Dubai and other Gulf markets, so the underlying metal cost is broadly comparable across the region. The real difference tends to show up in making charges, which can be lower in Muscat’s traditional souqs than in some equivalent shopping destinations, especially for heavier, traditionally styled pieces.

Where is the best place to buy gold jewelry in Muscat?

Muttrah Souq is the most iconic and atmospheric choice, offering traditional Omani craftsmanship and custom work. Ruwi is often better for competitive pricing and side by side comparison shopping. Shopping malls such as Oman Avenues Mall and City Centre Muscat suit buyers who want certified diamond jewelry and fixed, no negotiation pricing.

How can I tell if gold sold in Oman is genuine?

Look for the official hallmark stamp, which indicates purity in parts per thousand under Oman’s mandatory hallmarking system. For larger purchases, ask whether the retailer can perform an on site XRF test, which provides a fast and reliable purity reading, and always request written certification.

Do I need to pay VAT on gold in Oman?

Oman applies a standard five percent VAT on most goods and services, but investment grade gold of 99.5 percent purity or higher is generally VAT exempt. It is always wise to confirm the VAT treatment directly with the seller before completing a purchase.

How much gold can I carry out of Oman without declaring it?

Any traveler carrying cash, precious metals or other assets convertible into cash worth six thousand Omani rials or more, or the equivalent in another currency, must declare this to customs authorities when entering or leaving the country. This applies to gold jewelry, coins and bars combined, not just cash.

Does Oman actually mine its own gold?

Yes, though on a modest scale compared with major global producers. Gold in Oman is typically mined alongside copper, with the Al Washihi Majaza project in Al Sharqiyah North Governorate representing the most active current operation, alongside a longer history of exploration and smaller scale production at sites such as Rakah near Yanqul dating back to the 1990s and early 2000s.

Is buying physical gold a good investment in Oman?

Physical gold remains a popular investment choice in Oman thanks to its tangible nature and the psychological reassurance it offers during periods of economic uncertainty. Both Bank Muscat and established souq dealers offer investment grade bars and coins, with the right choice depending on the size of the purchase and how much you value certification versus a potentially tighter spread.

Is gold in Oman more affordable than gold in Dubai?

The underlying metal price is very similar in both markets since it tracks the same international spot rate. The main difference tends to be in making charges, which can be somewhat lower in Muscat’s traditional souqs for heavier, traditionally styled pieces, though branded international jewelry chains price their pieces similarly across the wider Gulf region.

What is the difference between 21 karat and 22 karat gold in Oman?

Twenty two karat gold contains a slightly higher proportion of pure gold than twenty one karat gold, giving it a richer colour but marginally less durability. Both are widely available across Omani gold souqs and jewelry stores, with the choice usually coming down to personal preference and the specific design being purchased.

Final Thoughts

Gold in Oman is far more than a shiny commodity sitting behind glass counters in Muttrah Souq. It is a thread that runs from ancient caravan routes carrying frankincense and precious metals across Arabia, through generations of skilled Omani silversmiths and goldsmiths, into modern copper gold mines being developed under Vision 2040, and finally into the everyday lives of Omani families for whom a wedding gold set still carries deep emotional and financial meaning. Whether your interest lies in history, culture, investment or simply finding the perfect souvenir, understanding gold in Oman gives you a genuinely rewarding window into one of the Arabian Peninsula’s most quietly remarkable countries.